Psychodynamic Research
In the following section,
(1) evidence for the efficacy of psychodynamic therapy (PDT) in specific mental disorders in adults will be briefly summarized by listing relevant publications,
(2) in addition, open questions of research will be listed. These open questions may guide future research and give young researchers an orientation for their own studies
1. Evidence for Psychodynamic Therapy in Adults
Randomized controlled trials, reviews and meta-analyses
A growing number of randomized controlled trials (RCTs), reviews and meta-analyses for psychodynamic therapy (PDT) in specific mental disorders is available showing not only that PDT is efficacious but also that it is as efficacious as other empirically supported treatments. This is demonstrated, for example, by
· Peter Lilliengren´s list of RCTs (https://www.kbap.de/fileadmin/users/redakteur/redakteur_upload/Liliengrenliste.pdf)
· Reviews on PDT (Fonagy, 2015, Leichsenringet al., 2015a, Leichsenring et al., 2015b, Shedler, 2010)
· Meta-analyses of PDT in specific mental disorders or groups providing evidence for efficacy in depressive disorders (Barber et al., 2021, Driessen et al., 2020, Driessen et al., 2015, Leichsenringet al., 2023a), anxiety disorders (Barberet al., 2021, Keefe et al., 2014, Leichsenringet al., 2023a) personality disorders (Barberet al., 2021, Leichsenring et al., 2023a), somatoform disorders (Abbass et al., 2021, Gutkin et al., 2020, Leichsenringet al., 2023a) complex mental disorders (Leichsenringet al., 2013, Leichsenring and Rabung, 2008, 2011b), transdiagnostic evaluations (Leichsenring et al., 2004, Steinertet al., 2017b).
· Comparison of PDT with other empirically supported treatments (Barber et al., 2021, Driessen et al., 2015, Keefeet al., 2014, Keefe et al., 2020, Leichsenring et al., 2023a, Smith and Hewitt, 2024; Steinert et al., 2017b; Miggiels et al, 2024) showing no clinically significant differences in efficacy.
· RCTs, reviews and meta-analyses of long-term psychodynamic therapy (Clarkin et al., 2007, Doering et al., 2010, Fonagyet al., 2015, Heim et al., in press, Leichsenring et al., 2013, Leichsenring and Rabung, 2008, 2011b, Leuzinger-Bohleberet al., 2019)
· Studies and meta-analyses of combined PDT and pharmacotherapy in depressive disorders (de Jonghe et al., 2004, de Jonghe et al., 2001, Driessen et al., 2020)
anxiety disorders(Wiborg and Dahl, 1996) and OCD (Maina et al., 2010)
schizophrenic spectrum disorders (Montag et al., 2014, Øhlenschlægeret al., 2007, Weijers et al., 2021)
· A recent RCT showed that PDT is efficacious in OCD with effect sizes and response rates comparable to CBT (Leichsenring et al., 2026).
In addition, there are several ongoing studies: e.g. examining PDT in
· PTSD (Milrod et al, Leichsenring et al. 2023),
Additional gain of psychodynamic therapy compared to other evidence-based therapies
PDT has been shown to achieve additional gains compared to other evidence-based therapies with regard to
· attachment, reflective functioning (Levyet al., 2006)
·
·
·
Research on Internet-guided psychodynamic therapy
There is evidence that internet-guided PDT is efficacious in
· depressive disorders (Johanssonet al., 2012)
· anxiety disorders (Anderssonet al., 2012, Johansson et al., 2017)
·
Effectiveness studies
There is evidence that PDT is effective under real-world conditions (e.g. Stiles et al., 2008). These results were recently corroborated by a naturalistic study which showed that both psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapy achieved long-term improvements. In the primary and most secondary outcomes, psychoanalytic therapy was superior to psychodynamic therapy in long-term outcomes (Henkel et al., 2025).
Research on cost-effectiveness
There is evidence that PDT is cost-effective. (Abbass, 2003, Bothe et al., 2023, Dams et al., 2017, Dührssen, 1962, Egger et al., 2016, Konnopkaet al., 2009, Lilliengren et al., 2020, Town et al., 2020)
Efficacy of PDT in minority groups
There is first evidence that PDT is efficacious in
· LGPTQ (Keefe et al., 2023)
· minority groups (Barber et al., 2012)
· ...
Studies, reviews and meta-analyses of general relevance for psychotherapy
· Effect sizes of psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy in comparison to TAU or placebo (Leichsenring et al., 2022b)
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·
·
2. Open questions and future research on outcome of psychodynamic therapy in adults
Informing about open questions and giving hints for future directions of research may be even more important than informing about the available evidence for PDT. Formulating open questions of research may direct and promote psychodynamic research and may especially be helpful for young researchers, e.g. for writing grant applications. In the following, areas and questions of outcome research are listed for which further research is required.
Evidence on dose effect relationships is required
It has not yet been clarified how many sessions of which treatment in which conditions work for whom. A recent RCT by Kool et al (2024) showed that both 50 sessions (twice weekly) of PDT and scheme therapy are more efficacious than 25 sessions in adults with depression and comorbid personality disorders. However, it is not clear whether the majority of patients benefitted sufficiently from 50 sessions and which patients may need more than 50 sessions to achieve a substantial improvement. This applies to other mental disorders as well.
Long-term psychodynamic therapy
· At present, only relatively few RCTs and meta-analyses on long-term PDT (LTPP) are available (Clarkinet al., 2007, Doering et al., 2010, Fonagy et al., 2015, Leichsenring et al., 2013, Leichsenring and Rabung, 2008, 2011b). This is especially true for psychoanalytic therapy (Huber et al., 2013, Huber et al., 2012, Leuzinger-Bohleberet al., 2019).
· A recent RCT reported that in patients with depression not having responded to CBT or short-term psychodynamic therapy additional 16 sessions yielded an improvement of d=0.29 in the intention to treat sample and of 0.45 in the per protocol sample, with no differences between continuing treatment with the same therapist, switching to another therapist or switching to another form of therapy (Miggiels et al., 2026).
· However, further evidence on long-term treatments is required.
Long-term outcome
Further RCTs and meta-analyses on long-term outcome of PDT are required.
· The meta-analyses providing evidence for PDT in depressive, anxiety, and personality disorders according to the 2015 criteria of the APA (Tolin et al., 2015) showed that PDT did not differ from active therapies in follow-ups with regard to reducing target symptoms. However, this does not necessarily imply that effects are stable. In the worst case, active therapies were not efficacious in follow-ups as well, implying that both PDT and active therapies did not yield stable effects.
· As the only exception, meta-analytic results of PDT in somatoform disorders showed that PDT was superior to controls in follow-ups (Abbass et al., 2021, Leichsenring et al., 2023a).
· For depression, the meta-analysis by Driessen et al. (2015) showed that the treatment effects of PDT were maintained or significantly improve further between end of therapy and follow-up.
· For these reasons, further RCTs and meta-analyses are required showing that PDT is superior to controls in follow-ups, especially in anxiety and personality disorders (Bateman and Fonagy, 2009, Keefe et al., 2020).
Functioning
Further RCTs and meta-analyses of PDT on functioning especially in anxiety disorders are required.
· The meta-analyses providing evidence for PDT in anxiety disorders according to the 2015 criteria of the APA (Tolinet al., 2015) showed that PDT did not differ from active therapies with regard to improving functioning (Barberet al., 2021, Keefe et al., 2014, Leichsenring et al., 2023a). Again, in the worst case, active therapies were not efficacious in improving functioning, too, implying that both PDT and active therapies were both not efficacious in improving functioning.
· For this reason, further RCTs and meta-analyses are required showing that PDT is superior to controls in improving functioning in anxiety disorders.
American Psychological Association 2015 criteria for empirically supported psychotherapies
PDT fulfills the 2015 criteria of the American Psychological Association (Leichsenring et al., 2023a, Tolin et al., 2015) for empirically supported therapies for depressive, anxiety, personality and somatoform disorders (Leichsenring et al., 2023a).
For other mental disorders, however, some RCTs exist but the number of RCTs is limited and meta-analyses which are required by the criteria proposed by Tolin et al. (2015) are not yet available. This applies to the following disorders for which further RCTs and meta-analyses are required to fulfil the 2015 APA criteria (Tolin et al., 2015):
· Cluster C personality disorders (Muranet al., 2005, Svartberg et al., 2004, Winston, 1994)
· eating disorders, that is bulimia nervosa (Garner et al., 1993, Poulsen and Lunn, 2014, Poulsen et al., 2014, Stefiniet al., 2017, Tasca et al., 2014)
binge eating (Tascaet al., 2012) anorexia nervosa (Dare, 2001, Gowerset al., 1994, Lock et al., 2010, Zipfel et al., 2013)
· addictions: opiate (Woody et al., 1985, Woody et al., 1983, Woody et al., 1990)
cocaine (Crits-Christophet al., 1999, Crits-Christoph et al., 2001)
alcohol (Sandahlet al., 1998)
· PTSD (Brom et al., 1989, Steinert et al., 2017a, Steinert et al., 2016a), with ongoing studies by Barbara Milrod et al. and Falk Leichsenring et al. (Leichsenring et al., 2020)
Further RCTs
Further RCTs of psychodynamic therapy in specific disorders are required. This applies to
· schizophrenic spectrum disorder
· bipolar disorders
· PTSD
· non-substance related addictions for example, gambling, shopping, sex, pornography.
· further high quality evidence for PDT in specific anxiety disorders. Several studies are of low study quality (Leichsenring et al., 2023a). For generalized anxiety disorder only a few RCTs of PDT exist (Papola et al., 2023).
· OCD
· adjustment disorders
· sexual dysfunctions
·
Specific outcomes
Future studies of PDT focusing on specific outcomes are required, such as
· functioning (Leichsenring et al., 2023a)
· attachment
· reflective functioning
· cost-effectiveness
· others
Additional gain of PDT
Future studies are required focusing on outcomes which may specific to PDT, e.g.
· conflicts
· attachment
· reflective functioning
· defense mechanisms
· others
Transdiagnostic approaches, unified protocols
Unified transdiagnostic psychodynamic protocols are available for several disorders, but further studies testing their efficacy are required, this applies to
· emotional disorders (Leichsenring and Steinert, 2018)
· depressive disorders(Leichsenring and Schauenburg, 2014, Steinert et al., 2016b)
· anxiety disorders (Buschet al., 2012, Leichsenring and Salzer, 2014)
· personality disorders (Caligoret al., 2018)
· transdiagnostic features (e.g. perfectionism Hewitt et al., 2023, Hewittet al., 2020)
Cost-effectiveness studies
Further studies of cost-effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy in specific disorders required.
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